Grammar
Word Parts
Part of speech is the class of words in a language based on their classification according to common grammatical characteristics. The word part is to be distinguished from the syntactic function (sentence function) of a word such as subject, object, adverbial, attribute, etc.
Genus
The genus is to be understood as grammatical gender, which serves as a classification feature, especially in the area of nouns. Words that refer to the noun must then be inflected in such a way that they match the genus of the noun (genus congruence). A connection to biological sex (sexus) is very common in the area of words referring to animate beings, but by no means mandatory.
In some languages, verbs are also dependent on the genus (Russian, Arabic).
Languages without genus are: Afrikaans, Armenian, Basque, Bengali, Dari, English, Estonian, Finnish, Georgian, Japanese, Persian, Tajik, Turkish, Hungarian.
Languages with distinction male/female are: Albanian, Amharic, Arabic, Aramaic, Baluchi, Breton, French, Hebrew, Hindi, Irish, Italian, Kashmiri, Catalan, Kurdish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Molise Slavic, Pashto, Portuguese, Romanes, Scottish Gaelic, Spanish, Urdu, Welsh.
are languages with the distinction Utrum/main (Neutrum): Danish, Hittite, Norwegian, Swedish, West Frisian. (Utrum refers to the common grammatical gender for male and female).
Languages with distinction male/female/main (neutral) are: Aromunian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, German, Faroese, Frisian, Greek, Icelandic, Kashubian, Croatian, Latin, Macedonian, Dutch, Polish, Resian, Romanian, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, Slovak, Sorbian, Czech, Ukrainian, Belarusian.
Numerus
The numerus (plural: numeri) is a form of counting to determine quantity values, i.e. to determine or distinguish the number. Many non-European languages, such as Chinese, do not have a numerus - in this case, the number is only expressed by means of numerical words or quantities if necessary; if the number is unambiguous, it is not given.
The following counting methods are available:
| Singular | Singular. A noun that is only used in the singular(ebb, rain, flesh) is called singulartantum |
| Plural | plural. The opposite of the plural is the singular. A noun that is only used in the plural(parents, siblings, holidays) is called pluraletantum |
| In some languages, the following forms of counting are further distinguished: | |
| Dual | Two number of the described elements with their own verbal or nominal forms |
| Paral | The paral (lat. Paralis) expresses a naturally given occurrence in pairs, as in eyes, hands, shoes etc. In contrast to the dual, which simply means an arbitrary, i.e. also accidental, duality |
| Trial | Three-number |
| Quadral | Four(er)Zahl (only found in Sursunga from New Ireland and Marshallish from the Marshall Islands) |
| Paukal | Small" plural: Similar to this, it does not define a clearly defined quantity, unlike singular or dual, for example, but is used to designate small quantities (equivalent to the German " einige oder einige") and is found, for example, in Iraqi Arabic |
| Distributive (Plurative) | Expresses the distribution of the items discussed, according to the use of the German word je(wiesils) |
The specific article
The definitive article is used for nouns and may depend on the numerus in languages without genus:
| Numerus | Singular | Plural | Exceptions |
| English | the | the |
For languages with genus, the definitive article depends on the numerus and genus:
| Genus | Male | Female | Exceptions | ||
| Numerus | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| French | le | les | la | les | in the singular become before vowels and mute h "le" and "la" to l' |
| Italian | il | i | la | le | in the singular, before vowels "il" and "la" become l' |
| lo | gli | before s + consonant, z, gn | |||
| Portuguese | o | a | os | as | |
| Spanish | el | go | la | read | in the singular/female "la" becomes "a" before a and mute h becomes "el |
| Genus | Utrum | Primitive (Neutral) | Exceptions | ||
| Numerus | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Danish | ~en | ~erne | ~et | ~ that | ~ is appended to the noun |
| Swedish | ~en | ~na | ~et | ~na | ~ is appended to the noun |
| ~at | ~na | En words ending in a |
| ||
| Ett words ending with a consonant | ~et | ~en | |||
| Genus | Male | Female | Primitive (Neutral) | Exceptions | |||
| Numerus | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| German | the | the | the | the | the | the | |
| Dutch | en | en | en | en | het | en | |
| Russian | |||||||
Plural formation of nouns
Pluralism in most languages is dependent on the genus. (The ~ character stands for the preceding noun, with * the last character is replaced by the following character, with ! the ending does not change)
| Language | Rules | Exceptions |
| English | ~s | If a noun ends in -y it is converted to -ies |
| Genus | Male | Female | Rule |
| French | ~x | ~x | ending in au, eu |
| *aux | *aux | ending on al, ail (but: festival/festivals) | |
| ~s | ~s |
| |
| For nouns ending in s or x, the singular is identical with the plural | |||
| Italian | *i | *e | if ending on "a |
| ! | if ending on "ie | ||
| *i | if ending on "e" or "o | ||
Nouns ending in -u, -i or consonant, as well as stressed and abbreviated nouns and some special cases, have the same ending in the singular and plural | |||
Some nouns on -oform the plural with -a (rare -e) and become feminina in the plural. They are usually derived from Latin neutra and often denote parts of the body that occur in pairs: il braccio (m) (arm) - le braccia (f, pl) or il paio (m) (pair) - le paia (f, pl) | |||
| Portuguese | |||
| Spanish | ~s | ~s | |
| Genus | Utrum | Primitive (Neutral) | Rule |
| Danish | ~erne | ~ that |
|
| Swedish | ~na | ~na |
|
| ~na | En words ending in a |
| |
| Ett words ending with a consonant | ~en |
| Genus | Male | Female | Primitive (Neutral) | Rule |
| German | ~e | ~(e)n | ~er | |
| Dutch |
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| Russian |
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